A Report on the Globalization of the Construction Industry...

A Report On The Globalization of the Construction Industry â€Å"How has globalization impacted on the construction industry in terms of issues such as: structure, characteristics of the industry and individual firms, building cycles and forecasting the future direction of the overall economy and the construction industry in particular†. TABLE OF CONTENTS Page 1.0 Executive Summary 2.0 Introduction 3.0 Globalization 4.0 Structure 4.1 The Global Construction Industry 4.2 Issues Relating to the Globalization Structure 5.0 Characteristics 5.1 Characteristics of the Industry 5.2 Individual Firms 6.0 Building Cycles 7.0 Forecasting the Future Direction 7.1 Future Direction of the Construction Industry†¦show more content†¦Because the growth in developing nations provided a greater margin in profit, the construction industry saw larger construction companies either entering into the local construction markets. Individual construction firms included Laing O’Rouke, one of England’s largest construction firms, or investing into larger local construction firms such as Hochtief, majority shareholder of Australia’s largest construction firm Leighton’s; they have also purchased the United States America largest builder, Turner corporation. Suppliers, for example Cemex, who have invested in global markets by purchasing business such, as Rinker to become the world’s largest concrete supplier. 4.0 Structure 4.1 The Global Construction Industry Global construction community is a $4.6 trillion industry (, viewed 23 May 2009) comprising of non-residential construction, residential construction, refurbishments, alterations and additions, infrastructure and maintenance. The international construction works are made of either public or private construction activity. 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As the wind industry continues to grow, it will provide many opportunities for workers in search of new careers. These careers extend beyond the wind farm which also takes efforts of workers in factories and offices to build and operate a turbine. According to a new report released by the Center on Globalization, Governance Competitiveness at Duke University, the wind industry could restore some jobs lost in the automotive industry and create many new jobs across the valueRead More The Elimination of the Middle Class1256 Words   |  6 Pages Globalization is the process by which regional economies, societies, and cultures have become integrated through a global network by transportation, communication, and trade. Through a global lens the process of globalization seems to be vital to the development of the modern world. As a result of globalization there has been a dramatic transition in every aspect of life around the world, more specifically in areas such as trade, immigration, and human development. International trade bolsters salesRead MoreGlobal Communications Within An Organization1680 Words   |  7 Pagesregards to globalization, it is important to consider the cultural differences that can impact an organization s success. This includes recognizing religious holidays, how words translate in different cultures and understanding the six dimensions of national culture. Through research and personal observation Team Global One will review the importance of communication in globalization and the impacts it has wi thin organizations. Importance of Communication in Globalization Globalization, as defined

Learning Style Comparison Essay - 1541 Words

Learning Style Comparison 1 Learning Style Comparison HSN/540 Teaching and Learning Strategies Learning Style Comparison 2 Learning Styles Comparison In today’s job market employers are seeking individuals that are ready to take on new positions that require advance training. The job market is very competitive and the low skill jobs are disappearing forcing adults to return to school to learn new skills and be trained to fill these new positions. An Individual that is aware of his or her learning style will have a have a higher percentage succeeding in an educational environment than an individual that is not of aware of his or her learning style. In an effort to discover my learning style I will describe my learning†¦show more content†¦Learning Style Comparison 4 How an individual interacts with a social context can also facilitated learning the individual might learn best within a group setting or prefers to study alone. Kolb’s Experiential Learning Model postulates that new learning experience is built on top or dependent on what has been learned in the past or in other words individual’s learning experience. Kolb noted that there are four modes of learning and that the modes are broken up into two categories, and those two categories are subdivided two more times. The first category is learning that occurs to perception and the second category is processing and denotes how an individual’s goes about learning. The first category is subdivided into two opposite viewpoints concrete experience and abstract conceptualization (Merriam, Caffarella, Baumgartner, 2007, p. 136; Cassidy, 2004). The second category is formatted the same as the first category but the two opposing viewpoints are reflective observation and active experimental. These four learning modes can describe individual’s learning style into four categories that can be represented by the diverger, assimilator, converger, and accommodator. 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Mc Donald’s and Hindu Culture free essay sample

What lessons does the experience of McDonald’s in India hold for foreign fast food chance and retails stores? Answer 1: Not only McDonald’s but also the other companies want to develop their business outside their counties, what they have to do first is to study and survey the countries they want to invest. Like this case, McDonald’s already knew cow is considered sacred and there are about 50% of the people are vegetarian in India, and McDonald’s already changed their menu to meet their culture. However, a worldwide famous fast food store, McDonald’s, deceived and destroyed their fame. In addition, they also have to pay 10 millions for lawsuit. Thus, to learn the culture, understand the culture and meet the culture are the import lessons to win the business. Question 2: Is there anything that McDonald’s could have done to have foreseen or better prepared itself for the negative publicity associated used beef extract in the frying oil? Answer 2: In the frying oil case, first McDonald’s matter-of-course had sincerely apology all the people in India, they promised there won’t have the similar case happen again, and they will fully respect Indian culture. We will write a custom essay sample on Mc Donald’s and Hindu Culture or any similar topic specifically for you Do Not WasteYour Time HIRE WRITER Only 13.90 / page Second, they already had a group of people to study India culture deeply, and to research the proper food for Indians. Third, clearly indicate the â€Å"Nutrition Facts† for each meal. Finally, they paid 10 millions for lawsuit and lost their trust from McDonald’s. Question 3: How far should a firm such as McDonald’s go in localizing its product to account for culture differences? At some point, might it not lose disadvantage by doing so? Answer 3: Since McDonald’s want to develop its business in India, they definitely have to meet Indian’s culture because their target consumer is the middle class of the second biggest population (12 billion) in the world. If McDonald’s want to gain a big profit, they have to adjust their business strategy because their market is in India. As all the people know, McDonald’s is an American fast food chain store where supply American food such as French fries, Coca Cola, and Hamburger. McDonald’s won’t lose their advantages like fast service, clean environment, safe playground and â€Å"Happy Meal† for kids as well as the clear restroom which Indian like, if their food can fit in with local people. According to the Financial Times, McDonald’s are going to open 2 vegetarian restaurants, one is in Amritsar which is the holiest site of Indian’s minority, and the other is in Katra which is the second busiest pilgrimage place in India. MFY† (Made for You) food preparation platform is an unique concept for the 2 outlets to emphasize McDonald’s make the food as your order, quickly, safety food, healthful. Furthermore, McDonald’s will open double stores of current 271 in next 3 years in India. After the French fries oil case, McDonald’s did have learned a lesso n to make the food to conform the local’s market and culture.

Strategic Management and Amazon free essay sample

TMA 05 Block 4 Collaborative analysis Contents Part 1 External analysis (group A) 2 Internal analysis (group B) 4 Stakeholder analysis (group C) 10 Corporate-level strategy analysis (group D) 14 Competitive-level strategy analysis (group E) 17 Part 2 Critical assessment of the analysis 23 Part 3 Evidencing of contribution to groups 28 Part 4 Reflection on group decision making 30 Appendix 32 Part 1 1. Group A analysis INTRODUCTION Each member of team A used one of the many available frameworks to analyse the external environment of Amazon. com, focusing on the strengths, weaknesses, opportunities and threats facing the organisation. The findings of each member’s analysis were amalgamated to form the content of the following report. Using the following frameworks we have identified the SWOT factors facing Amazon. com: STEP, Strategic Group Analysis/Strategic Group Map, Porter 5 Forces, Porters Generic Strategies and Competitor Analysis. ANALYSIS The far external environment STEP analysis has shown: High barriers to entry for new competitors in the same cluster as Amazon. com, as there is a large investment in technology and marketing required in order to compete. We will write a custom essay sample on Strategic Management and Amazon or any similar topic specifically for you Do Not WasteYour Time HIRE WRITER Only 13.90 / page Economic factors can affect the cost leadership approach of Amazon. Political issues are linked with sociological and therefore, are amplified for Amazon’s market. The near external environment Porter’s 5 forces: Supplier power is limited, as Amazon is potent customer, suppliers would not wish to lose them. Buyer power is low, as Amazon tends to offer the most competitive all round customer experience. The threat of substitute products is low due to the high barriers to entry, and there are no switching costs for customers (easy to buy from competitors) Amazon has joined forces with competitors (or hosts a web site for them) and therefore it can profit from their sales. Competitive environment Strategic group analysis has shown that Amazon stands alone, with its nearest competitor being eBay. This tends to show that it is a market leader. Amazon is successfully implementing a cost leadership / differentiation strategy enabling it to increase its market share. This helps Amazon to continue as a market leader. Amazon’s collaboration with its competitors has allowed it to source new items and gain economic rents from its partners. Amazon’s cash flow cycle allowed it to receive money from a customer before it has paid its supplier giving the financial market more faith in Amazon allowing it to finance itself more easily. CONCLUSION Team A has identified Amazon. coms key opportunities and threats through framework analysis. Growth, Technological, Collaborative and Flexibility opportunities enable Amazon to take advantage of changing STEP factors, conversely, Growth and Operations  threaten  Amazons  current and future position. Amazon has been able to use leverage within the market in order to persuade competitors to collaborate with them and therefore, gain economic rents from these partnerships. This has enabled Amazon to create intense market growth, which has both opportunities and threats and Amazons response will determine its future success within these fluid markets. TEAM PROCESS The activity was split into smaller tasks assigned to each team member in order to carry out our individual analysis reports on Amazon’s external environment, with each of us responsible for a certain framework. Due to our different availability, we were unable to organize teleconference meetings to make real-time decisions, and we communicate through asynchronous means on the Team A forum instead in order focused on coordinating our final report analysis, in which we used a consensus with qualifications approach. Appendix 1: SWOT [pic][pic]Bottom of Form [pic] Appendix 2: Strategic group map for e-commerce originations[pic] [pic] [pic]Bottom of Form 2. Group B analysis 1. Introduction Amazon. com is one of the largest online retailers offering a one stop shop solution to their customers. This reports objective is carrying out a SWOT audit of Amazons resources and capabilities using conceptsmodels from Unit 2 of Block 3: VRIN/VRIS, Porters value chain, and links between resource, capabilities and competitive advantage from Unit 2 of Block 3 (The OU, 2010). This is an outcome of individual analyses in 3 subgroups, team discussions and collaboration through agreement on tools, responsibilities and wiki structure. 2. Internal Analysis, a Resource Based View Internal analysis is used to determine relationships between resources and capabilities and how they are used to create value. The RBV suggests that sustainable competitive advantage determines organisations distinct capabilities (Johnson et al, 2008). Amazon therefore needs to exploit their capabilities (Hooley et al. 2008), in order to develop sustainable competitive strategy. The audit of Amazons resources and capabilities is shown in Appendix 1. Figure 1 highlights Amazons resources and capabilities using Barneys (1991) VRIS/N concept: to achieve sustainable competitive advantage, a resource must have four attributes; it must be valuable, rare, inimitable and not easily substituted (Block 3, The OU 2010 p. 61-64) a strength for Amazon. [pic] Figure 1, VRIS analysis (Unit 2, Block 3) 3. Resources and capabilities in the Value Chain The Value Chain analysis (Appendix 2) highlights how value is created or lost through internal activities and can indicate a need to extend the development of resources / capabilities: primary activities are those directly concerned with creation and delivery of Amazons services (Unit 2, The OU, 2010). It is clear where Amazon is able to create value through efficient activities and a well established process. Since sustainable competitive advantage is based upon resources and capabilities, value needs to be maintained or enhanced for Amazon. om to retain their position of sustainable competitive advantage (Unit 2, The OU, 2010, p. 60). Amazons business model offers a synergistic combination of the following benefits which help them to remain competitive: †¢ Shopping convenience †¢ Ease of purchase †¢ Speed †¢ Decision-enabling information †¢ A wide selection †¢ Di scounted pricing †¢ Reliability of order fulfillment Amazon. coms combination of services and logistical processes creates value for their customers which in-turn creates  sustainable  competitive advantage. Although these links can be hard to substantiate (causal ambiguity) (Unit 2, The OU 2009), Amazons resources/capabilities are valuable as they are difficult to replicate (e. g. knowledge). 4. Amazon. coms Dynamic Capabilities Amazons capabilities can be described as dynamic: processes used to manage resources in response to dynamic environment (Eisenhardt and Martin, 2000). The impact Amazon. coms dynamic capabilities have: †¢ proactive flexible strategy †¢ re-shaping competitive environment / industry standards †¢ superior response to customers demand / KSFs (Unit 2, The OU, 2010) †¢ gathering knowledge utilise resources to their best potential Since Amazon. com operates in a dynamic enviroment, they should avoid risks or exploit new opportunities (SWOT The OU 2010, p. 191) by combining strategic flexibility with adequate resources, supported by their capabilities. 5. Conclusion In this report we collaboratively analysed Amazons resources and capabilities which informs their strengths and weaknesses (The OU 2010, p. 190), as illustrated in Appendix 3. For Amazon. com to manage change and to implement competitive strategy (Block 3, p. 92) is a challenge since they operate in a dynamic and global environment. Amazon. com will therefore need to continually renew resources and capabilities to react to the opportunities and threats in their external environment and to ensure that their cross functional capabilities are integrated. 7. References 1. Block 3, Reading 10: Hitt, H. A. , Keats, B. W. and DeMarie, S. M. (1998) Navigating in the new competitive landscape: Building strategic flexibility and competitive advantage in the 21st century, Academy of Management Executive, Vol. 12, No. 4 Academy of Managment 2. Block 3, Reading 3: Grant, R. M. 1991) The resource-based theory of competitive advantage: implications for strategy formulation,California Management Review, Vol. 33, Issue 3. By permission of the Regents. 3. Eisenhardt, K. and Martin, J. (2000) Dynamic capabilities: what are they? in The Open University (ed. ) Readings for Block 3, Milton Keynes, The Open University pp. 77-84 4. Grant, R. M. (2008), Contemporrary Strategy Analysis (6th edn), Oxford, Blackwell. 5. Leschly, S. , Roberts, M. J. and Sahlman, W. A. (2003) Amazon. com 2002, Harvard Business Review. 6. Lester, H. (2006), Creating a unique multi-channel customer experience, London, Fifty Lessons Ltd [online], http://openuniversity. fiftylessons. com. libezproxy. open. ac. uk/viewlesson. asp? 1=534 (accessed July 2009/2011) 7. Porter, M. E. (1985), Competitive Advantage, New York, Free Press. 8. The Open University (2009) B301 Making sense of strategy, Block 1 Introducing strategy, Milton Keynes, The Open University 9. The Open University (2010) B301 Making sense of strategy, Block 3 The strategy toolkit, Milton Keynes, The Open University 10. Viney, H. , Winchester, N. and Boojihawon (2010). B301, Block 3 The Strategy Toolkit: The Open University. 8. Appendices Appendix 1 [pic] Figure 1 Links between resources, capabilities and competitive advantage (adapated). [pic] Figure 2 Resources and capabilities of Amazon. Figure 3 The hierarchical structure of capabilities (The Open University, 2010 p. 80) (Adapted) Appendix 2 [pic] Appendix 3 [pic] 3. Group C analysis Introduction View comments on separate page Add your own comment Team Cs analysis is based on strengths, weaknesses, opportunities and threats of Amazons stakeholders as highlighted in the case study Amazon. com- 2002. The analysis is informed by a range of models including a stakeholder map and analyses of their power, classes and salience. Outcome of Group Analysis 3 most recent shown (view all) Add your own comment Strengths Amazon uses a superior online platform which can lead to competitors becoming partners so they can tap into that resource. This is a core organizational capability and exploits the technological skills of its highly qualified workforce, putting Amazon in a very strong position to build its businesses effectively, as evidenced by its other business areas (including warehousing, buying, shipping, security and distribution) and mutually beneficial partnerships (i. . with Toys R Us). Amazon has an experienced and accomplished CEO who has developed the Amazon brand into a household name following its successful diversification strategies. Customers use Amazon as a means of achieving convenience through shopping online with an established and recognized retailer with a reputation for secure handling of information and online safety. Weaknesses Amazons collaborative strengths also form part of its weakne sses in respect of reliance on third party distributors. This implies a shortage of expertise in some areas of Amazon’s operation, since they require this kind of collaborative relationship. Having such a strong reliance on the internet delivery model also leaves Amazon vulnerable to technological problems which could lose business and drive customers to its competitors who operate in broader ways (such as high street stores). The hasty expansion of Amazon’s businesses may affect internal procedures and systems. This could have a negative effect on levels of staff productivity and motivation which could have a detrimental effect on Amazon’s overall success. Opportunities Diversifying into new markets is an opportunity to grow its collaborative-focused businesses such as using Merchant. com to help other organisations manage their online services for a fee. This enabled Amazon to simultaneously exploit its superior technology and benefit its collaborative partnerships. Amazon has the potential to develop its technological advantages further in a similar way that it has with its Kindle. This could open up opportunities for collaboration with other high profile technology-focused companies such as Apple or Sony to design the next big gadget. Amazon has the potential to become ambassadors for Corporate Social Responsibility due to its local distribution channels (which are relatively green) as evidenced by the Kindle which has reduced the need for paperback books. This could support political affiliations, helping its long-term planning. Threats Hackers are a threat to Amazon’s online platform. If the wrong people get access to customer data it could destroy Amazon’s reputation for online safety. This could stop customers buying its products, and partners from collaborating. Changes in consumer buying habits can pose a significant threat. Between 2002 and 2007 the difference in spending between books and consumer electronics rose from $843m to $4,319m. Low entry barriers form a threat because there are potential competitors which Amazon must look out for to craft its strategies effectively. This, coupled with the potential for partners with ploys to gain best practice and then compete without collaboration means that Amazon must consider the true motives of its partners. Stakeholder Map I have identified Amazons stakeholders and attached a link to the stakeholder map. Stakeholders are described by Freeman ‘any group or individual who can affect or is affected by the achievement of the firm’s objectives’ (Freeman, 1984, p. 25) The stakeholders are prioritised by power, legitimacy and urgency, dependant on the number of categories they fit into they can be categorised in following sections: Latent Stakeholders – stakeholders who only have one attribute. Expectant Stakeholders – stakeholders who have two attributes. Definitive Stakeholder – stakeholders who have all the attributes. The more attributes stakeholders have the more of a priority they are to an organisation. Stakeholder Power Matrix View comments on separate page Add your own comment How should a business respond to variations in stakeholder power and influence? Completing a power matrix will help Amazon develop a communication plan that is aligned to each stakeholders focus and concerns. The matrix prioritises Amazon stakeholders in order of importance. The positioning on the grid is important; High power, interested people: these are the people with the greatest influence, every effort must be made to engage these stakeholders †¢ High power, less interested people: put enough work in with these people to keep them satisfied, but not so much that they lose interest. †¢ Low power, interested people: These people can often be very helpful with the detail of your project. †¢ Low power, less interested people: moni tor these people, but do not overburden them with excessive communication. †¢ Figure 1: Stakeholder power matrix of Amazon |High level of interest |Low level of interest | |High level of power |Shareholders, Partners, Customers |Government, Suppliers, creditors | |Low level of power |Pressure groups, the press, local communities, environmental agencies,|Every stakeholder will have some form of | | |employees |power | Stakeholder Classes Analysis Amazon. om stakeholder classes In carrying out stakeholders’ analyst (Mitchell et al, 1997) identify three attributes:   Power, legitimacy and urgency. He then formulated seven areas to class them in. |Stakeholder |Attributes: |Classification |   | | |power | | | | |legitimacy | | | | urgency | | | | | | | | |Management |X |Dominant |Bezos and his team are the brains behind | | |X | |Amozon. om | | |X | | | | | | | | |Third party sellers |X |Dependent |Z-shops/auctions | | |X | | | | |   | | | | | | | | |customers |X |dema nding |Always looking for new changes | | |X | | | | |   | | | | | | | | |employees |  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   X |Dangerous/dependent |The back bone of the company | | |X | | | | |   | | | | | | | | |partners |X |Definitive |Large corporation/Toys R Us | | |X | | | |   | | | | | | | | |suppliers |X |Definitive |close proximity | | |X | | | | |   | | | | | | | | |Government |X |   |Amazon. com have to abide by certain rules | | |X | |and regulation | | |   | | | | | | | | Stakeholder Salience Analysis The following analysis considered the salience of amazon. com’s stakeholders. STAKEHOLDER SALIENCE |  Ã‚   |Attributes Possessed |Stakeholder Classification | |Stakeholder |Legitimacy |Power |Urgency |   | |Bezos (owner) and Senior Management TeamBoard of Director|   |   |X   |Stakeholder dominant | | |X |X | |   | |Partners suppliers (eg Sotheby’s)    |   |   |Mutual power- dependence | | |X |X |   |relationship | |Shareholders |   |   |   |Mutual power-dependence relationship| | |X |X | | | | |   | | | | |Specialist employees and managers |   |   |   |Mutual power-dependence relationship| | |X |X | | | |Non specialist employees |   | | |Firm dominant | | |X | | | | |Small businesses Individuals that sell stock on website |   |   |   |Stakeholder interests – legitimacy | |   |X | | |not implied | |Third party sellers incl. mall Medium sized   traders |   |   |   |Basis for legitimacy of relationship| |that amazon purchased equity in |X | | | | |Media, Government, Customers |   |   |   |A relationship exists | | |X | | | | NB. Some legitimate stakeholders have little influencepower but it is important to remember that power can be acquired or lost (Mitchell et al, 1997). In addition, I have amended the table to reflect that stakeholders are more likely to move temporarily into a state of urgency. Managers need to pay particular attention if this occurs with stakeholders that possess both legitimacy and power. The first two listed have the highest salience  for managers. However, the needs of the other stakeholders need to be  considered in particular dormant shareholders who can  exert power  with urgency if necessary. References View comments on separate page Add your own comment The Open University, (2010) B301, Block3, The Strategy Toolkit, Milton Keynes, The Open University Stakeholder Map ( The Open University, Block 3, The Strategy Toolkit, 2010, p. 81-82) Stakeholder Power Matrix The Open University, Block 3, The Strategy Toolkit, 2010, p. 106) The Open University, (2010) B301, readings for Block 3, Milton Keynes, The Open University Stakeholder Classes (The Open University, Block 3, The strategy Toolkit, 2010, p. 101) The Open Univers ity, (2010) B301, Block 4,Collaborative Analysis, Milton Keynes, The Open University Amazon. com Case Study (The Open University, Block 4, Collaborative Analysis, 2010, p. 40-70) 4. Group D analysis Outcome of Group Analysis TEAM D – AMAZON. COM’S CORPORATE-LEVEL STRATEGIC CHOICES Bottom of Form ANSOFF’S VECTORS Top of Form Bottom of Form Recommendation: Amazon continues to pursue both market penetration and diversification. Market penetration: †¢ Amazon places an emphasis on customer experience; there’re no switching costs for their ‘customers for life’. †¢ Their technological platform makes it hard to compete due to start up costs and high levels of technical staff required to run the website (valuable, non imitable). Diversification: †¢ It already meets minimum requirement for the market’s KSF, and capitalises on the organisations resources and capabilities. †¢ There’s no unacceptable financial risk to endanger liquidity of the capital structure. †¢ Should not affect the organisations internal systems and procedures, or relationship with its stakeholders. Weaknesses: Possible over-dependence on third parties: contingencies would be required. †¢ Non English speaking market is as yet untouched potential – forming new partnerships where necessary to allow for diversification into new geographic markets of non English speaking readers is suitable, feasible and acceptable. CORPORATE RELATEDNESS Bottom of Form Recommendation: diversification. †¢ Amazon. com offers a single portal to provide convenience to their customer for the online shopping experience. †¢ Book business success expanded to shippable consumer goods. †¢ Diversification approach born through strategic alliances. †¢ Intangible resources were developed forming foundation for capabilities and core competencies. Used expertise and scaling capabilities to enter new markets and offer backend services, therefore gaining positioning with a USP. †¢ Foundation and infrastructure in place, therefore allowing to support the diversity of the offering concurrently. †¢ Synergies between organisations provided an entry point for everyone but allowed each organisation to operate independently. Using the value-creating strategies of diversification table (Hitt et al, 2003), Amazon is located within the Low opportunity of sharing assets/h igh corporate relatedness quadrant (APPENDIX 2 – CORPORATE RELATEDNESS). The high corporate relatedness could partly be explained as the result of their strategic alliances. Although having positioned the company as low operational relatedness, in this company synergy exists as the value created offering several products in a single website exceeds the value the user would have in the possible event they had to pay double shipment costs. SUITABLE, FEASIBLE, ACCEPTABLE Bottom of Form Suitable: Diversification complies with Amazon’s KSF (Selection, Price and Convenience). It also maximises resources and capabilities through the application of Barney’s VRIN model. Diversification overcomes threats including reducing competitors through forming mutually beneficial alliances. It operates according to Bezos’ vision for an online shop where anything can be bought. Feasible: Amazon’s strategy can be resourced because it uses a relatively inexpensive online platform and draws on trustworthy suppliers and skilled staff. Diversification shouldn’t affect Amazon unless they use unknown partners who don’t deliver. The competition’s likely to emulate Amazon or form partnerships with them. Neither approach should pose a threat. Acceptable: Amazon has a developed marketplace platform meaning low input costs and the ability to exploit its existing technology. It’s well established partnerships, meaning that its stakeholder relationships are likely to remain positive. Amazon’s able to rapidly deliver its provision meaning that diversification is unlikely to cause problematic procedural issues. TEAM PROCESS Bottom of Form Project Lead was the only assigned role. Due to larger group-numbers and less areas to cover 3 subgroups were formed and final allocation for separate report areas were agreed upon. Individual reports were put forward and best-bits merged to create a summarised version. These summaries were merged once again for the final  wiki. Wordcount: (545 words) APPENDIX 1 ANSOFFS VECTORS APPENDIX 2 – CORPORATE RELATEDNESS REFERENCES. APPENDIX 1 ANSOFFS VECTORS Market Penetration The use of the internet and access to high speed internet connection has enable Amazon. com with the use of its open minded and innovative team, to launch and develop what is today the biggest online bookstore anywhere in the world. The results of the stage 2 analyses indicate that a market penetration strategy was used effectively. Strategically located, Amazon developed brand eputation through its superior technology, skilled workforce and logistical capabilities that facilitated rapid growth and allowed Amazon to gain price advantage. Market Development At one point Amazon was roughly doubling its sales every quarter: at this stage they had nearly 340,000 customers with further hits numbering 80,000. However despite some countries having internet restrictions, as more of the world becomes internet-enabled, there is still potential for further growth here. Another weakness is that there are a limited number of offers for non English titles. Product Development From their original market plan which was sales of books, Amazon not only developed their product range, but they also developed their services as well, providing the ‘ultimate customer experience’ They then went on to launch an entire host of other items, including the launch of the Kindle eBook which resulted in an existing product (books) being made available to Amazon customers in a new way. Diversification Five years after starting up Amazon. com embarked upon a new strategy â€Å"the marketplace initiative. †   Online auctioning was implemented by the firm; this however was done by third party companies and individuals. Amazon was just the source through which these third party products were sold and Amazon was not accountable for these goods and services. This lead Amazon to realise they now served 2 different sets of customers: buyers and sellers. APPENDIX 2 – CORPORATE RELATEDNESS [pic] Adapted from Block 3 The strategy toolkit p. 223 REFERENCES.  ·Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   Block 3 – The strategy toolkit Making Sense of Strategy.  ·Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   Block 4 – Collaborative Analysis Making Sense of Strategy.  ·Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   Readings for Block 3 – Reading 15 Making Sense of Strategy.  ·Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   Team A, B C wikis. 5. Group E analysis Outcome of Group Analysis Introduction Team E undertook an evaluation of Amazons competitive level strategy, reporting back using Gerry Johnson et al. (2006) three sets of generic testing criteria: a) Suitability: In line with Jeff Bezos vision of uilding a place where people find and discover anything they might want to buy online (Amazon2002), Amazon is consistent with and fulfils the market KSF (A ppendix, Fig. 1) that it operates within by offering product variety, order fulfillment and competitive prices in a truly virtual model that eliminates a large portion of fulfillment costs and inventory risk. In theory, Amazons cost-leadership and differentiation strategy is suitable, since they are able to meet their customers’ needs (Fig. 2) and it gives them the opportunity to exploit their strengths[i]. Their strategy can become problematic if their technology platform is not continually being developed and therefore able to cope with Amazons continuous expansion. Amazon capitalized their resources and capabilities,[ii] to build awareness, increase traffic and sales. They were also pursuing their online commerce opportunities and solidifying and extending their position in the large markets where they noticed substantial opportunities. [iii] Amazon has accelerated their online commerce by creating value for their customers (Appendix, Fig. 3) and obtaining sustainable competitive advantage. b) Feasibility In practice, Amazon can achieve the required level of operational performance by delivering cost leadership advantage (Fig. 4 and Table1), assigning the necessary market capital due to its IPO, to raise capital and invest $800 million in technology (Grant: economies of scale and learning. Drivers: Quality of purchased products, features and performance and complementary services), creating market share, which stems from its original success and good name (Grants input costs/economies of scale and learning) and lowering costs by initiating redundancies and closing distribution and customer service centers (Grant: residual efficiency / input costs. Drivers: Technology embodied in design, the skill and experience of employees, location and degree of vertical integration). c) Acceptability There is a risk that Amazons relationships with their stakeholders (Fig. 5) can be affected if their increased purposed growth does not take in account that: †¢ International growth can add pressure to their internal systems and procedures which could affect profits. †¢ Increase in oil prices affect delivery costs. †¢ Not enough expertise in markets they are diversifying into a loss in returns. Increased third party suppliers/sellers may not provide same level of servi ce as Amazon directly, could impact the reputation potentially losing customers One of the key issues in shareholders management is the maximization of the long term cash flow by maintaining dynamic capabilities to preserve a degree of flexibility that can allow it to react to changes and keep the shareholder returns acceptable. Recommendations †¢ Have service level agreements of what is expected of suppliers and continue to monitor and develop customer feedback. †¢ Source local suppliers and distributors in countries such as Germany, UK, China Amazons overall sales, resulting in higher efficiency and better quality service. Setup business in countries with stable economies and governments †¢ Ensure their technology platform is continually being developed †¢ Carry out market research into the suitability, feasibility and acceptability of new strategies, products and services offered Process used by the team Team E was split in three sub-teams that bought together all three headings of the framework into one single agreed final report. [pic] [i] (Team A wiki, Appendix1 SWOT) [ii] (Team B wiki Fig. 2 RC Amazon) [iii] (Team A wiki, Appendix 1 SWOT) References 1. Leschly, S. , Roberts, M. J. and Sahlman, W. A. (2003) Amazon. com 2002, Harvard Business Review. 2. Viney, H. , Winchester, N. and Boojihawon (2010). B301, Block 3 The Strategy Toolkit: The Open University. 3. Grant, R. M. (2008), Contemporary Strategy Analysis (6th edn), Oxford, Blackwell. 4. Porter, M. E. (1985), Competitive Advantage, New York, Free Press. 5. Lester, H. (2006), Creating a unique multi-channel customer experience, London, Fifty Lessons Ltd [online], http://openuniversity. fiftylessons. com. libezproxy. open. ac. uk/viewlesson. asp? 1=534 (accessed July 2009/2011) 6. Block 3, Reading 3: Grant, R. M. (1991) The resource-based theory of competitive advantage: implications for strategy formulation, California Management Review, Vol. 33, Issue 3. By permission of the Regents. 7. Block 3, Reading 10: Hitt, H. A. , Keats, B. W. and DeMarie, S. M. (1998) Navigating in the new competitive landscape: Building strategic flexibility and competitive advantage in the 21st century, Academy of Management Executive, Vol. 12, No. 4 Academy of Management. 8. 8. Viney, H. , Winchester, N. and Boojihawon (2010). B301, Block 3 The Strategy Toolkit: The Open University. 9. Leschly, S. , Roberts, M. J. and Sahlman, W. A. (2003) Amazon. com 2002, Harvard Business Review. APPENDIX Bottom of Form 1. Amazon. coms Key Success Factors. [pic] 2. Amazons customer needs. [pic] Figure 2, Amazon’s customer needs. 3. Markides'(1999) who, what, how’ framework (Block 3, p. 231). [pic] Figure 3, Markides'(1999) who, what, how’ framework (Block 3, p. 231). 4. Grants eight drivers of cost advantage (Block 3, p. 235) [pic] Figure 4, Drivers of cost advantage. 5. Drivers of Amazon’s cost advantage (Block 3, p. 242) |  Economies of scale |Technical input–output |Amazon can purchase in bulk the firm is able to spread the costs | | |relationships; |of the items over a larger volume of output. Large warehouse | | |indivisibilities; |stores like Amazon dominate the retail industry that used to be | | |specialization |made of small, local stores. The threat of substitute products is| | | |low due to the high barriers to entry, and there are no switching| | | |costs for customers (easy to buy from competitors) | |Economies of learning |Increased individual skills; |Organizations ‘learn by doing’. One of Amazon’s KSF is its | | |improved organizational |technologically experienced employees. . | | |routines | | |Production Techniques |Process innovation; |Amazon. com sells its entire inventory every 25 days! | |re-engineering of business | | | |processes | | |Product design |Standardization of designs and |Amazon have diversified into e-books via the Kindle, made | | |components; design for |possible by their knowledge of technology, research/development | | |manufacture |and unique resources | |Input costs |Location advantages; ownership |Amazon is successfully implementing a cost leadership / | | |of low-cost inputs; non-union |differentiation strategy enabling it to increase its market | | |labour; bar gaining power |share. Supplier power is limited, as Amazon is potent customer, | | | |suppliers would not wish to lose them. Buyer power is low, as | | | |Amazon tends to offer the most competitive all round customer | | | |experience. | |Capacity utilization |Ratio of fixed to variable |Amazon’s cash flow cycle allowed it to receive money from a | | |costs; fast and flexible |customer before it has paid its supplier giving the financial | | |capacity adjustment |market more faith in Amazon allowing it to finance itself more | | | |easily. |Residual efficiency |Removal of organizational |Team A identified Amazon’s $800m investment made in advanced | | |slack; achievement of |technology in order to stand as the platform above competitors. | | |X-efficiency; presence of |Team B identified that Amazon’s skilled staff and e-business | | |employee motivation and strong |systems as two of its most valuable attributes. | | |organizational culture; | | | |managerial effectiveness. | | Table 1, Drivers of cost advantage. 6. Amazon’s stakeholder map. [pic] Figure 5, Amazons Stakeholders. Amazon needs to consider the implications their strategic decisions have on their Stakeholders â€Å"any group or individual who can effect or is affected by the achievement of the firm’s objectives† (Freeman, 1984, p25) Part 2 Critical assessment of group analysis a) External analysis (Group A) Amazon’s internal environment was analysed to identify their opportunities and threats (Appendix 1, figure 3). The distinction of Amazon’s far, near and competitive environments (appendix 1, figure 1) could have been illustrated (Block 3, p. 18). a) Far environment Amazon’s far environment’ (Block 3, p. 18) include ‘sociological, technological, economic and political’ forces (STEP model Block 3, p. 18). The relationship between these factors was explained, but not identified. The ‘online retail spending forecast’ (Block 4, Exhibit 3, on p. 57) identifies a sociological force, showing the changes in their customer behaviour and the apparel opportunity. The increase in active and new customers and a rise in internet purchases are shown in Exhibit 1b (Block 4, p. 54). Technological development provides a opportunity for growth and is supported by the international internet statistics, 2002 (Block 4, Exhibit 11 on p. 0). ‘Legal’ and ‘environmental’ considerations should have been considered, referring to the extended model of Fahey and Narayanan’s framework (Block 3, p. 23). Amazon’s international expansion (Block 4, Exhibit 4b) lead to increased legal factors affectin g their operations due to different governments and regulations and can impact profitability (Block 3, p. 25). b) Near environment The failed to illustrate the analysis of Amazon’s near environment using Porter’s five forces framework (Block 3, p. 27). International internet statistics, 2002 (Block 4, Exhibit 11 on p. 70) shows that ‘government’ should be included as a sixth force (Block 3, p. 18 – Rugman and Verbeke), since it affect the structure of Amazon’s industry and profitability (Readings for Block 3, p. 17). See Appendix 1, figure 2. ‘Growth, technological, collaborative and flexibility opportunities’ was vaguely mentioned and further influences could have been identified i. e. brand development (Doyle, 2002), advanced technology and infrastructure which is not imitable (Block 3, p. 60 – Barney’s VRIN) and differentiation. c) Competitive environment The strategic group map (Block 3, p. 45 – Grant, 20 08, p. 118) clearly showed Amazon’s position in ‘geographical scope’ and ‘product range’. Amazon is a market leader since it is not easy to imitate their brand, their infrastructure or the way they do things (Barney’s VRIN). Although all the criticism on organisations pursuing a dual strategy I feel that they are correct in stating that Amazon compete both on a cost leadership and differentiation strategy (Block 3, p. 46 – Porter, 1985, p. 12). Porter’s generic strategies (Block 3, p. 46) could have been used to support this, as illustrated in figure 4. This report gave me an insight of Amazon’s industry, their competitors and competitive environment; they pursue both cost leadership and differentiation strategies. To identify the opportunities and threats they should have referred to the SWOT analysis in their appendix. b) Internal analysis (Group B) Amazon’s internal environment was analysed with the objective to identify their strengths and weaknesses. See appendix 1, figure 3 for the SWOT ordering framework (Block 3, p. 191). ) Internal Analysis, a Resource Based View Figure 1 (appendix 1) illustrates the ideal relationship between Amazon’s resources, capabilities a nd competitive advantage (Block 3, p. 67); which should have been adapted more specifically to Amazon. ‘Casual ambiguity’ (Block 3, p. 61) is noticeable due to the difficulty to link and establish Amazon’s resources, capabilities and competitive advantage. Their KSFs should have been identified, since resources and capabilities arguably will only have value if they permit to satisfy the KSFs (Block 3, p. 61). Amazon’s tangible, intangible resources and their capabilities were illustrated in figure 2, appendix 1. Further referencing could have been made to the case study for example Exhibit 2b (Block 4, p. 56), the comparison between Amazon and a typical book retail operating cycle. This shows Amazon’s unique resources and capabilities which are not easily imitable. Grant’s (1991) steps of strategy formation (Readings for Block 3, p. 49) could have been included and annotated with an example within Amazon. Barney’s VRIS concept (Block 3, p. 61) was illustrated well and it has been reported back to the SWOT analysis. The analysis did not identify which of Amazon resources have all four attributes and if it provides sustainable competitive advantage. b) Resources and capabilities in the Value Chain Value creation was shown (Appendix 2) using Porter’s value chain. Amazon’s services and logistical processes are seen to add value, for example their operating cycle in comparison to a book retailing operating cycle (Block 4, Exhibit 2b). This highlights the importance of Amazon’s assets in achieving competitive advantage. The limitation of the value chain analysis is that it mostly concentrates on identifying an organisation’s strengths and not their weaknesses. c) Amazon’s Dynamic Capabilities Appendix 1 the ‘hierarchical structure of capabilities’, illustrated Amazon’s excellence of customer support through their cross-functional capabilities. Capabilities are dynamic since Amazon is required to adapt their resources and capabilities to the changes in their competitive environment and to the industry’s KSFs. Amazon’s dynamic capabilities allow them to have a proactive flexible strategy which helps building on their strengths with the support from resources and capabilities to exploit opportunities or avoid risks. They concluded with a focus on Amazon’s strengths and weaknesses and looking at their resources and capabilities. They should have identified where Amazon need to renew their resources and capabilities to react to the opportunities. c)   Stakeholder Analysis (Group C) Team C analyzed Amazon’s stakeholders reporting back on SWOT. a) Stakeholder Map and Power Matrix The stakeholders map identifies Amazon’s stakeholders and is supported by the stakeholder power matrix which indicates whether stakeholders have the capacity to influence the implementation or the criteria upon which Amazon’s strategy is based. It is not clear if Amazon’s strategy is based on ‘criteria or operational power’ (Block 3, p. 106). This can be referred back to the ‘resource dependency theory’ (Block 3, p. 97 – Pfeffer, 1981), showing how one business unit within Amazon can be dependent on another. Amazon therefore needs to take stakeholders into consideration who contributes significant resources when strategy is formulated. b) Stakeholder classes To identify stakeholder types emerging from combinations of attributes: power, legitimacy and urgency (Readings for Block 3, p. 9) they should have used the ‘qualitative classes of a stakeholder’ (Readings for Block 3, p. 99). The analysis of Amazon’s stake holder groups, classified them with the use of the former mentioned attributes. It involves a different aspects to take into consideration which they supported with examples from Amazon but did not report back to the weaknesses and threats. c) Stakeholder Salience Analysis Amazon’s stakeholders were categorised in terms of salience. The possession of attributes should be treated as dynamic, since situations might arise due to urgency and this would influence the decision (Mitchell et el. , 1997). Stakeholders can affect Amazon’s objectives (Block 3, p. 6) due to salience which is linked to CSR i. e. they are using environmentally friendly packing. A stakeholder working in warehousing or distribution might have felt that this is urgent where others did not, but since more customers are environmentally focused this provided a coalition of power to make the decision. a) SWOT analysis This group should revise the structure of their outcome by ending with the SWOT analysis where they mainly had to focus on the threats and weaknesses (Appendix 1, figure 3). Amazon’s weaknesses such as their dependency on third party distributers could also be an opportunity to exploit, using their resources and capabilities. The changes in consumer behaviour identified as a threat; could also be an opportunity for them if the changes in the market are in their favour. They supported this with facts from the exhibits, increase in spending. Further evidence could have been used to confirm what attributes (power, legitimacy and urgency) their consumers have. From a stakeholder perspective they have identified Amazon’s strengths, weaknesses and opportunities and threats well. d) Corporate Analysis (Group D) Amazon’s corporate-level strategy was evaluated using Ansoff’s vectors with the recommendation to pursue both market penetration and differentiation strategies and reporting back to suitability, acceptability and feasibility (Johnson et al. , 2006). I do not agree with their recommendation; as they need to pursue another strategy when the market is saturated to continue growing. Amazon’s business plan included both the ‘retail model’ and their ‘marketplace model’ (Block 4, p. 40) which they then later integrated showing Amazon’s different growth strategies. a) Retail Model Amazon started as a book retailer with modest inventories, depended on distributors with a focus on growth following a ‘market penetration strategy’ (Block 3, p. 208 – Ansoff’s growth vectors). Amazon then evolved towards a ‘product development’ (Ansoff, 1987) growth strategy to incorporate a wider variety of products (Block 3, p. 40). During the expansion in 2000 (Exhibit 4, p. 8) they pursued a market development or a diversification strategy depending if they entered the new markets with existing or new products. Throughout Amazon’s evolution they have invested in buildin g out and integrating their technology to further develop their capabilities. b) Marketplace Model Amazon augment their retail commence model with the ‘marketplace initiative’ (Block 4, p. 40) focussing on third-party sellers. Retailers became interested in outsourcing their online presence. Amazon therefore served as an e-commerce outsourcing partner, developing commerce models and an auction capability, entering and building partnerships and they introduced zShops. Here they focussed pursuing on both market development and product development strategies. c) Integrating Amazon Amazon’s customer culture focuses on providing their customers with ‘selection, price and convenience’. They changed to a ‘single-store strategy’ from having third-party commerce in distinct areas to selling alongside them on their website. Amazon continually expands their product lines by diversification (Ansoff, 1987) of commerce and developing multiple partnership strategies such as marketing deals and syndicated stores etc. As a result Amazon remains competitive and continually grows. The apparel opportunity posed different options to Amazon i. e. partnerships or stocking the items themselves. I personally feel that the integrated approach would be better, as they would then share their resources and capabilities which will enable them to exploit further opportunities. d) Recommendation and suitability, feasibility and acceptability Amazon has to continually adapt to their growth strategy due to the importance of ’market share, service capabilities and differentiation’ (Barney’s VRIN), to exploit opportunities and overcome weaknesses. Looking at Amazon’s retail, marketplace and integrated models we have seen them pursuing multiple growth strategies (see appendix 1, Ansoff’s four growth strategies)which was suitable at the time and feasible due to their resources and capabilities and lastly acceptable (Johnson et al. , 2006) due to expanding the selection available to customers. I agree with their recommendation to pursue a strategy of diversification especially looking at the apparel opportunity but in other areas of the business they might consider product development or market development strategies depending on the SWOT analysis. e) Corporate relatedness Since Amazon establish economies of scope with their operating models (Block 4, Exhibit 2b) and have the ’technology, processes and competencies’ which other retailers prefer to outsource. I therefore agree that Amazon has an opportunity of sharing their assets whilst having low corporate relatedness (Hitt et al. , 2003 – Block 3, p. 223) with the retailers or partners. e) Competitive analysis (Group E) The outcome of Amazons competitive level strategy evaluation did not recommend which of Porter’s competitive strategies should be pursued (Block 3, p. 245). a) Resources and capabilities available to the Amazon Amazon integrate, build, and reconfigured their internal and external competencies to address changing environments and to build their dynamic capabilities (Reading’s for Block 3, p. 77 Teece et al. ). Investments resulted in online retailing technologies, website personalization features, warehousing, reliable IT systems, customer relationship systems and new products leading to competitive advantage through both cost and differentiation (Block 3, p. 245) strategies. b) The industry key success factors (KSFs) KSFs refer to the limited number of areas in which satisfactory results will ensure successful competitive performance† (Rockart and Bullen, 1981). Amazon needs to focus on their success to build their capabilities, this helps to understand the key areas in which they should invest their time and resources. Amazon’s KSFs is identified in Appendix 1, figure 6. c) The nature of Amazon’s external environment To evaluate Amazon’s competitive level strategy they need to look at their external environment to identify their competitive position and determine opportunities and threats (Porter’s five forces framework). Group A’s external analysis should have been used. Supplier power is low as Amazon provide their customer base a ecommerce platform. Buyer power is low, since Amazon provides the most competitive all round customer experience (SWOT – strength); including variety based on their operating cycle (Block 4, p. 56). Amazon capabilities of ecommerce platforms (Barney’s VRIN) give them competitive power; supported by their customer-centric culture (Block 3, p. 247). Competitors fail to compete directly with Amazon, as they provide customer experience which is not imitable. The threat of substitution is moderate; customers can find the products from competitors i. e. Barnes Noble or Ebay. Their selection, price and convenience (SWOT – strength) makes them unique. The barriers to enter are high; Amazon therefore exploited their capabilities in commerce and by developing partnerships with other retailers (SWOT – opportunity). d) Objectives of key stakeholders Markides'(1999) who, what, how’ framework (Block 3, p. 31) gives an overview of who Amazon’s customers are, what value proposition do they make to customers i. e. variety of products at low cost. And the way the value is delivered i. e. through their reliable web infrastructure. Amazon’s stakeholderâ₠¬â„¢s main objective is a ‘vision of ultimate selection’ by providing ‘a place where people can come to find and discover anything they might want to buy online’ (Block 4, p. 40). With their focus on serving customers (see appendix 1, figure 6) they started embracing ‘selection, price and convenience’ on which they base their customer experience. In addition to these objectives, also feel that the main focus for the key stakeholders for Amazon is growth and profit maximisation. ) Recommendation and suitability, feasibility and acceptability Amazon’s core competitive strategy has been to focus on the customer experience; however, they also compete on time, price, convenience, loyalty, reputation and innovation. They focussed on Grant’s ‘drivers of cost advantage’ (Block 3, p. 235); this shows that a competitive strategy should not only be based on a cost focus. My recommendation is that they continue pursuing both a co st and differentiation advantage; by developing their capabilities across functions. Creating a sustainable competitive advantage, Amazon differentiates with service and cost sectors made possible with their strong, supportive and complex organisational culture (Block 3, p. 246) Amazon’s integrated cost leadership and differentiation strategy is ‘suitable’, as it identifies their opportunities i. e. he apparel opportunity where they capitalise their resources and capabilities which conforms to the KSFs. Their strategy of both options is ‘feasible’ but I feel that the partnership option is more feasible, due to the complexity of the apparel industry. The strategy is ‘acceptable’ since the apparel commerce was forecasted to grow at 34% from 2002 – 2007 with an estimated market segment at $203 billion per year. Although this seems like a profitable option there is still a risk involved due to the complexity of the industry. Part 3 Ev idencing of contribution to groups a) Stage 2 Group B was responsible to undertake an analysis of Amazon’s resources and capabilities. We were divided into three subgroups, where my subgroup was responsible for identifying Amazon’s resources and capabilities and their attributes; evaluate their competitive advantage and strategic implications. Amazon’s resources and capabilities provide the basic direction of their strategy and I incorporated this into Grant’s strategy formation framework. Drawing from the internal analysis I was able to identify Amazon’s strengths and weaknesses (SWOT analysis) and we illustrated the links between Amazon’s resources, capabilities and competitive advantage (Block 3, p. 67). See my individual contribution (Resources and capabilities/strengths and weaknesses, 20 June 2011, 00:30): http://learn. open. ac. uk/mod/forumng/discuss. php? d=541629#p4181476 Once everyone posted their individual analysis I took on the role as ‘project manager’ to encourage each sub-group to combine their contributions, see my post (Sub-group planning for wiki draft, 20 June 2011, 14:15): http://learn. open. ac. uk/mod/forumng/discuss. php? d=539832#p4187538 I chased the progress of both sub-group 1 and 3 to post their collated contribution for their group. (Sub-groups 1 3, 21 June 2011, 23:13) http://learn. open. ac. uk/mod/forumng/discuss. php? d=539832#p4216747 I was assigned the task to produce the final report in SWOT format based all the contributions with a deadline for day 12 (22/06/2011) and my efforts was then reviewed. See final SWOT Analysis, 23 June 2011, 09:27: http://learn. open. ac. uk/mod/forumng/discuss. php? d=547063#p4236069 I was assigned the role as editor of all the contributions and posted the information onto the Wiki, which was further checked by Nadia. We have been corresponding in regards to the outcome of the group analysis and wiki structure on the forum (wiki structure): http://learn. open. ac. uk/mod/forumng/discuss. php? d=542800#p4143951 Further evidence of my contribution is evident on the editing I have done on the wiki; please see the link for the history: http://learn. open. ac. uk/mod/ouwiki/history. php? id=530424group=181907 I really enjoyed working as part of Group B, the communication and team work between members was really good. The project manager (Nadia Curtis) assigned everyone’s responsibilities out well including the deadlines. b) Stage 3 Group E was undertaking a critical evaluation of Amazon’s competitive-level strategic choices. This group started off slowly and it seemed that most people were reluctant to be the project manager. I suggested that we all should post the important aspects that needs to be included in the analysis and from there assign responsibilities (Responsibilities delegation, 25 June 2011, 14:08): http://learn. open. ac. uk/mod/forumng/discuss. php? d=556960#p4264437 Diana Sacuiu took lead and decided on subgroups and delegation of responsibilities reporting back to suitability, acceptability or feasibility. My sub-group was responsible for looking at Amazon’s competitive-level strategy from a ‘suitability’ point of view. My individual task was to identify Amazon’s resources and capabilities and the way they relate to external opportunities (Diana Sacuiu, 26 June 2011, 20:20): http://learn. open. ac. uk/mod/forumng/discuss. php? d=558651#p4277348 I identified Amazon’s resources and capabilities and explained how they are used to exploit opportunities, how capabilities are developed and enables them to pursue both an integrated cost-leadership and differentiation strategy (Block 3, p. 247). See link (Competitive level strategy from a suitability point of view, 28 June 2011, 23:36): http://learn. open. ac. uk/mod/forumng/discuss. php? d=558823#p4305912 We put our sub-groups information together which I edited and included figures to reduce our word count: 1. Draft 1: http://learn. open. ac. k/mod/forumng/discuss. php? d=562267#p4310586 2. Draft 2: http://learn. open. ac. uk/mod/forumng/discuss. php? d=562267#p4313345 3. Draft 3: http://learn. open. ac. uk/mod/forumng/discuss. php? d=562267 #p4322730 4. Draft 3 (2): http://learn. open. ac. uk/mod/forumng/discuss. php? d=562267#p4324685 I further supported sub-group three with a figure to help reduce their word count, see my post (30 June 2011, 16:05): http://learn. open. ac. uk/mod/forumng/discuss. php? d=562267#p4324971 I also checked the spelling, format and I added the relevant references to our group’s final report (1 July 2011, 14:05): http://learn. open. ac. uk/mod/forumng/discuss. php? =562267#p4335805 Although this group did not collaborate as much, we were able to finish our evaluation of Amazon’s competitive-level strategy and reporting back upon its suitability, acceptability and feasibility, see final wiki link: http://learn. open. ac. uk/mod/ouwiki/view. php? id=530430group=181907page=Outcome+of+Group+Analysis Part 4 Reflecting on group decision making Looking at the collaborative work of the groups I will be identifying if the process is rational, political with evidence of power positions o r authority (Readings for Block 3, p. 250) or if there are any noticeable importance of chance which can be referred to as the garbage can model (Readings for Block 3, p. 257). From doing the collaborative exercises I have noticed that the decision- making process which included deciding what information to include for the outcome of each group was a political process (Pettigrew, 1973 Readings for Block 3, p. 246). Political behaviour has been defined as behaviour of individuals, or in collective terms; by sub-units, within an organisation that makes a claim against the resource-sharing system of the organisation (Readings for Block 3, p. 247) or in this case the group. It was decided within the groups which individuals will take on which roles such as editor, project manager and project chaser etc. The groups were then divided into sub-groups which had specialized tasks which are interdependent for the outcome. I have noticed power conflicts within the groups due to the perception of interdependence (Thompson, 1961- Readings for Block 3, p. 248) of resources for the final outcome. This was when each sub-groups’ contribution was collaborated for the final outcome, as it seemed to be influenced by the editor or project manager exercising authority over what information to use (Talcott Parsons – Readings Block 3, p. 249) . This shows that the decision making process deviates from the proposed rational model of decision making, I therefore agree with Simon’s (1979, Block 3, p. 261) assumption of ‘bounded rationality’ and ‘satisficing’ (Block 3, p. 262) for the decision making process of the groups. Group B agreed that the final wiki should be checked by Nadia and I did not ag

Inquiring minds want to know Essays

Inquiring minds want to know Essays Inquiring minds want to know Essay Inquiring minds want to know Essay Sampling plan The idea of sampling is the process of selecting some of the people in the population so that conclusions can be drawn about the entire population (Cooper, Schneider, 2011). The true test of a sampling plan is how well it represents the characteristics of the population. A sampling plan is a detailed outline of which measurements will be taken at what times, on which material, in what manner, and by whom (Sampling). It should allow all questions, as stated in the companys goals, to be answered. Pennon used a multistage qualitative communication study to determine the long- ERM feasibility of the reader service card used that is used by readers to be able to request additional information from a particular advertiser. First, Pennon drew a small sample of participants from their database of 1. 7 million domestic subscribers. The research team then conducted phone surveys to pre-test the reader-targeted mail questionnaire. A telephone survey is described to be the workhorse of survey research (Cooper, Schneider, 2011). It is a low cost and efficient means of contracting information from people. There are disadvantages or weaknesses when conducting loophole surveys that may have impacted Pennons data. One disadvantage is that there is a limitation on the interview length. A second disadvantage is that there are limitations on the use of visual or complex questions that are used in face to face interviews. Studies have suggested that the response rate in telephone studies is much lower than comparable face to face interviews (Cooper, Schneider, 2011). Participants can find it much easier to terminate a phone conversation. Following the phone surveys, a second pretest through mail went out to a considerably small sample size of 300 subscribers. After the second pretest became finalized, the mail survey went out to 4,000 managers, executives, engineers, and purchasing agents that were selected from the database by using stratified disproportionate random sampling. A total of 710 questionnaires were received, but only 676 of the respondents indicated they were purchase decision makers for their respective organization. Similar to the telephone survey, there are several weaknesses that may potentially exist when conducting surveys via mail. The survey cannot be long or complex and there is no interviewer intervention. Also, the artisans may represent extremes of the population. In this case, over 5% responded they were not decision makers for their organizations. In research, that is a large amount of variability. The number may actually be greater; some that responded may have not indicated they were not decision makers. Using stratified sampling can be disadvantageous because there is a possibility of ignoring other subgroups in the population that could have a strong effect on the management dilemma that ultimately leads to the management decision. In this database. They were able to include a question in the survey that could simply identify who has this type of power in their organization. Pennon was able to significantly reduce the resources needed by investigating the specific audience it had intended to in the questionnaire used in their sample selection. A disadvantage to this is that this does not accurately represent their entire 1. 7 million subscribers. This could change their findings on how the subscribers interact with advertisers through the publication. Research design Research Design is the blueprint for the collection, measurement, and analysis of data (Cooper Schneider, 2011). The research design used by Pennon consisted off ultraists communication study. In a communication study, the researcher questions the subjects and collects their responses by personal or impersonal means (Cooper Schneider, 2011). Pennon started their research by first using exploratory studies. The company started their research by comparing inquiry responses options within the September issues of 12 Pennon magazines. This allowed Pennon to see that readers have more options when responding and the individuals increase in the use of email. The research conducted by Pennon used a two-stage design. The initial surveys allowed Pennon to begin a reporting study to obtain data from the users of the reader service cards. A reporting study provides data that allows the company to have a deeper understanding and generates numbers for comparison. The data that was collected resulted in a reader-targeted mail questionnaire by telephone, and then Pennon mailed a questionnaire to a select 300 subscribers before finalizing the questionnaire to 4,000 managers, executives, engineers, and purchasing agents. The technique used in the questionnaire was qualitative, by asking specific questions on methods of contact between consumer and advertiser. A weakness of the design used by Pennon is the lack on observation and communication with the participants. In the final portion of the study, Pennon should have conducted personal or group interviews to establish a better understanding of the users feelings. Personal interviews with the 4,000 managers and executives may supply a great depth of information regarding user preferences. As mentioned previously, a great deal of variability exists when dealing with telephone or mailed surveys. Pennon cannot fully verify the experience of the participants. In conclusion, Pennon Media believed that its magazine advertisements did not enervate as much revenue as they used to create.

How to Deal with Bad Lab Partners

How to Deal with Bad Lab Partners Have you ever taken a lab class and had lab partners that didnt do their share of the work, broke equipment, or wouldnt work together with you? This situation can be really hard, but there are steps you can take to make things better. Talk to Your Lab Partners This may be harder than it sounds, if your problem is that you and your lab partners dont speak the same language (which is relatively common in science and engineering), but you can improve your working relationship with your lab partners if you can explain to them whats bothering you. Also, you need to explain what you would like them to do that you feel would make things better. Be prepared to compromise, since your lab partner may want you to make some changes, too. Keep in mind, you and your partner may come from very different cultures, even if youre from the same country. Avoid sarcasm or being too nice because theres a good chance you wont get your message across. If language is a problem, seek an interpreter or draw pictures, if necessary. If One or Both of You Dont Want to Be There The work still has to get done. If you know your partner wont do it, yet your grade or your career is on the line, you need to accept that youre going to do all of the work. Now, you can still make sure it is evident your partner was slacking. On the other hand, if you both resent doing the work, its reasonable to work out an arrangement. You might find you work better together once you acknowledge you hate the task. Willing But Unable If you have a lab partner who is willing to help, yet incompetent or klutzy, try to find harmless tasks that allow the partner to participate without damaging your data or your health. Ask for input, let the partner record data and try to avoid stepping on toes. If the clueless partner is a permanent fixture in your environment, its in your best interest to train them. Start with simple tasks, clearly explaining the steps, reasons for specific actions, and desired results. Be friendly and helpful, not condescending. If you are successful in your task, youll gain a valuable ally in the lab and possibly even a friend. Theres Bad Blood Between You Maybe you and your lab partner had an argument or theres past history. Perhaps you simply dont like each other. Unfortunately, its not always possible to escape from such a situation. You can ask your supervisor to reassign one or both of you, but youll run the risk of getting a reputation of being hard to work with. If you decide to ask for a change, its probably better to cite a different reason for the request. If you absolutely must work together, try setting boundaries that limit how much you actually have to interact. Make your expectations clear so both of you can do the work and retreat. Take it to the Next Level Its better to try to work out problems with your lab partners than to seek intervention from a teacher or supervisor. However, you might need help or advice from someone higher up. This might be the case when you realize you cant meet a deadline or complete an assignment without more time or changing the work dynamic. If you decide to talk to someone about your problems, present the situation calmly and without bias. You have a problem; you need help finding a solution. This may be difficult, but its a valuable skill to master. Practice Makes Perfect Having trouble with lab partners comes with the territory. The social skills you can master dealing with lab partners will help you, whether youre only taking one lab class or are making a career out of lab work. No matter what you do, youll have to learn to work well with others, including people who are incompetent, lazy or just dont want to work with you. If you are making a career of science, you need to recognize and accept youll be a member of a team.

Records and Information Management Research Paper

Records and Information Management - Research Paper Example The article also asserts that information is one of the best resources in the world. It is required daily to solve not only problems, but also make decisions affecting the future. Increasingly, the level of success enjoyed by any organization depends on the manner in which the information resource is managed. According to the article, when one refers to information he or she means the entire records, documents, as well as data and files created, received and preserved. Records management on the other hand is the â€Å"field of management responsible for the efficient and systematic control of the creation, receipt, maintenance, and disposition of records – including capturing and maintain evidence of and information about business activities and transactions in the form of records† (Records & Information Management, 1). According to the article, the objectives furnishing accurate, timely as well complete information for amicable decision-making. Other objectives include efficient processing of recorded information, provision of information as well as records at the lowest cost, rendering maximum service to record users and getting rid of the information that is not required. The article also asserts that organizations invest in records management systems together with programmes so as to realize their business benefits. In relation to this assertion, one can deduce that RIM systems are the key part of incorporating new technologies i nto the business as well as ensuring conformity with record keeping requirements by the government. In conclusion, information management as well as record management plays a very significant role in the management of an organization. Organizations rely on information in making amicable decisions pertaining to their production of services to the customers. Organizations also invest on records management in order to realize the benefits of their

The Reading Fluency Strategies Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2500 words

The Reading Fluency Strategies - Essay Example There are many ways to help improve reading fluency for students. According to researchers Wolf& Katzir-Cohen, (2001) there are 25 words used daily by the student which make up about 33 percent of what students read at school. The reading strategies for teachers to use with struggling readers are very broad. There are several studies which involve demonstrating reading techniques to increase fluency, including having the books the students read in class also taken home and read again with family members. Author Darling (2005) implied that â€Å"Engaging parents in their children's reading acquisition, particularly by focusing their attention on the skill areas outlined in this column, can help children find greater success in school.† The author further explains that children can learn more with teacher and parent collaboration. This suggests that the onus of learning is not placed solely upon the teacher, but is also a responsibility the parent must undertake. The reasons for this are clear: 1) to reinforce the strategies learned in school, 2) to allow the child to read in a non-judgmental environment, away from peers and 3) to involve the parent in the child’s learning process. ... Prosody refers to expressive interpretation, which speaks to the student’s comprehension of the reading material. These three components allow the teacher (and the parent) to accurately assess each student’s reading and comprehension. According to authors Morrow, Kuhn, & Schwanenflugel (2006) their Family Fluency Program shows that children who read automatically become fluent readers and are able to decode words more freely. The authors also stated that prosody is used by fluent readers who use â€Å"appropriate pitch, pace, and phrasing† for better comprehension (p. 1). The program by Morrow, Kuhn, & Schwanenflugel (2006) shows the importance of parental involvement at the school and home, which also improves the student’s fluency. Students who are behind in reading may have a hard time adapting to new reading strategies. This is why it is particularly important that the strategies being used in school are reinforced at home. According to the National In stitute of Child Health and Human Development (2000) there are five key components to watch for in assessing reading ability in students aged 3-9. These components are phonemic awareness, phonics, fluency, vocabulary, and text comprehension. Watching for these key skills at home during parent-child reading sessions can assist a student with early development, particularly if the process starts before the student reaches kindergarten. There are reports on early literacy skills by Chard,Simmons, & Kameenui (1995) Snowv, Bums, &Griffin (1998) showing rates for early increase and indicating the importance of reading as a life skill. Useful Approaches for Struggling Readers There are three main approaches used for struggling readers: whole class reading and partnership reading,

History of education Essay Example for Free

History of education Essay Before the invention of reading and writing, people lived in an environment in which they struggled to survive against natural forces, animals, and other humans. To survive, preliterate people developed skills that grew into cultural and educational patterns. For a particular group’s culture to continue into the future, people had to transmit it, or pass it on, from adults to children. The earliest educational processes involved sharing information about gathering food and providing shelter; making weapons and other tools; learning language; and acquiring the values, behavior, and religious rites or practices of a given culture. Through direct, informal education, parents, elders, and priests taught children the skills and roles they would need as adults. These lessons eventually formed the moral codes that governed behavior. Since they lived before the invention of writing, preliterate people used an oral tradition, or story telling, to pass on their culture and history from one generation to the next. By using language, people learned to create and use symbols, words, or signs to express their ideas. When these symbols grew into pictographs and letters, human beings created a written language and made the great cultural leap to literacy. IIIEDUCATION IN ANCIENT AFRICA AND ASIA In ancient Egypt, which flourished from about 3000 BC to about 500 BC, priests in temple schools taught not only religion but also the principles of writing, the sciences, mathematics, and architecture. Similarly in India, priests conducted most of the formal education. Beginning in about 1200 BC Indian priests taught the principles of the Veda, the sacred texts of Hinduism, as well as science, grammar, and philosophy. Formal education in China dates to about 2000 BC, though it thrived particularly during the Eastern Zhou Dynasty, from 770 to 256 BC (see China: The Eastern Zhou). The curriculum stressed philosophy, poetry, and religion, in accord with the teachings of Confucius, Laozi (Lao-tzu), and other philosophers. IVEDUCATION IN ANCIENT GREECE Historians have looked to ancient Greece as one of the origins of Western formal education. The Iliad and the Odyssey, epic poems attributed to Homer and written sometime in the 8th century BC, created a cultural tradition that gave the Greeks a sense of group identity. In their dramatic account of Greek struggles, Homer’s epics served important educational purposes. The legendary Greek warriors depicted in Homer’s work, such as Agamemnon, Odysseus, and Achilles, were heroes who served as models for the young Greeks. Ancient Greece was divided into small and often competing city-states, or poleis, such as Athens, Sparta, and Thebes. Athens emphasized a humane and democratic society and education, but only about one-third of the people in Athens were free citizens. Slaves and residents from other countries or city-states made up the rest of the population. Only the sons of free citizens attended school. The Athenians believed a free man should have a liberal education in order to perform his civic duties and for his own personal development. The education of women depended upon the customs of the particular Greek city-state. In Athens, where women had no legal or economic rights, most women did not attend school. Some girls, however, were educated at home by tutors. Slaves and other noncitizens had either no formal education or very little. Sparta, the chief political enemy of Athens, was a dictatorship that used education for military training and drill. In contrast to Athens, Spartan girls received more schooling but it was almost exclusively athletic training to prepare them to be healthy mothers of future Spartan soldiers. In the 400s BC, the Sophists, a group of wandering teachers, began to teach in Athens. The Sophists claimed that they could teach any subject or skill to anyone who wished to learn it. They specialized in teaching grammar, logic, and rhetoric, subjects that eventually formed the core of the liberal arts. The Sophists were more interested in preparing their students to argue persuasively and win  arguments than in teaching principles of truth and morality. Unlike the Sophists, the Greek philosopher Socrates sought to discover and teach universal principles of truth, beauty, and goodness. Socrates, who died in 399 BC, claimed that true knowledge existed within everyone and needed to be brought to consciousness. His educational method, called the Socratic method, consisted of asking probing questions that forced his students to think deeply about the meaning of life, truth, and justice. In 387 BC Plato, who had studied under Socrates, established a school in Athens called the Academy. Plato believed in an unchanging world of perfect ideas or universal concepts. He asserted that since true knowledge is the same in every place at every time, education, like truth, should be unchanging. Plato described his educational ideal in the Republic, one of the most notable works of Western philosophy. Plato’s Republic describes a model society, or republic, ruled by highly intelligent philosopher-kings. Warriors make up the republic’s second class of people. The lowest class, the workers, provide food and the other products for all the people of the republic. In Plato’s ideal educational system, each class would receive a different kind of instruction to prepare for their various roles in society. In 335 BC Plato’s student, Aristotle, founded his own school in Athens called the Lyceum. Believing that human beings are essentially rational, Aristotle thought people could discover natural laws that governed the universe and then follow these laws in their lives. He also concluded that educated people who used reason to make decisions would lead a life of moderation in which they avoided dangerous extremes. In the 4th century BC Greek orator Isocrates developed a method of education designed to prepare students to be competent orators who could serve as government officials. Isocrates’s students studied rhetoric, politics, ethics, and history. They examined model orations and practiced public speaking. Isocrates’s methods of education directly influenced such Roman educational theorists as Cicero and Quintilian. VEDUCATION IN ANCIENT ROME While the Greeks were developing their civilization in the areas surrounding the eastern Mediterranean Sea, the Romans were gaining control of the Italian peninsula and areas of the western Mediterranean. The Greeks’ education focused on the study of philosophy. The Romans, on the other hand, were preoccupied with war, conquest, politics, and civil administration. As in Greece, only a minority of Romans attended school. Schooling was for those who had the money to pay tuition and the time to attend classes. While girls from wealthy families occasionally learned to read and write at home, boys attended a primary school, called aludus. In secondary schools boys studied Latin and Greek grammar taught by Greek slaves, called pedagogues. After primary and secondary school, wealthy young men often attended schools of rhetoric or oratory that prepared them to be leaders in government and administration. Cicero, a 1st century BC Roman senator, combined Greek and Roman ideas on how to educate orators in his book De Oratore. Like Isocrates, Cicero believed orators should be educated in liberal arts subjects such as grammar, rhetoric, logic, mathematics, and astronomy. He also asserted that they should study ethics, military science, natural science, geography, history, and law. Quintilian, an influential Roman educator who lived in the 1st century AD, wrote that education should be based on the stages of individual development from childhood to adulthood. Quintilian devised specific lessons for each stage. He also advised teachers to make their lessons suited to the student’s readiness and ability to learn new material. He urged teachers to motivate students by making learning interesting and attractive. VIANCIENT JEWISH EDUCATION Education among the Jewish people also had a profound influence on Western learning. The ancient Jews had great respect for the printed word and believed that God revealed truth to them in the Bible. Most information on ancient Jewish goals and methods of education comes from the Bible and the Talmud, a book of religious and civil law. Jewish religious leaders, known as rabbis, advised parents to teach their children religious beliefs, law, ethical practices, and vocational skills. Both boys and girls were introduced to religion by studying the Torah, the most sacred document of Judaism. Rabbis taught in schools within synagogues, places of worship and religious study. VIIMEDIEVAL EDUCATION. During the Middle Ages, or the medieval period, which lasted roughly from the 5th to the 15th century, Western society and education were heavily shaped by Christianity, particularly the Roman Catholic Church. The Church operated parish, chapel, and monastery schools at the elementary level. Schools in monasteries and cathedrals offered secondary education. Much of the teaching in these schools was directed at learning Latin, the old Roman language used by the church in its ceremonies and teachings. The church provided some limited opportunities for the education of women in religious communities or convents. Convents had libraries and schools to help prepare nuns to follow the religious rules of their communities. Merchant and craft guilds also maintained some schools that provided basic education and training in specific crafts. Knights received training in military tactics and the code of chivalry. As in the Greek and Roman eras, only a minority of people went to school during the medieval period. Schools were attended primarily by persons planning to enter religious life such as priests, monks, or nuns. The vast majority of people were serfs who served as agricultural workers on the estates of feudal lords. The serfs, who did not attend school, were generally illiterate (see Serfdom). In the 10th and early 11th centuries, Arabic learning had a pronounced influence on Western education. From contact with Arab scholars in North Africa and Spain, Western educators learned new ways of thinking about mathematics, natural science, medicine, and philosophy. The Arabic number system was especially important, and became the foundation of Western arithmetic. Arab scholars also preserved and translated into Arabic the works of such influential Greek scholars as Aristotle, Euclid, Galen, and Ptolemy. Because many of these works had disappeared from Europe by the Middle Ages, they might have been lost forever if Arab scholars such as Avicenna and Averroes had not preserved them. In the 11th century medieval scholars developed Scholasticism, a philosophical and educational movement that used both human reason and revelations from the Bible. Upon encountering the works of Aristotle and other Greek philosophers from Arab scholars, the Scholastics attempted to reconcile Christian theology with Greek philosophy. Scholasticism reached its high point in the Summa Theologiae of Saint Thomas Aquinas, a 13th century Dominican theologian who taught at the University of Paris. Aquinas reconciled the authority of religious faith, represented by the Scriptures, with Greek reason, represented by Aristotle. Aquinas described the teacher’s vocation as one that combines faith, love, and learning. The work of Aquinas and other Scholastics took place in the medieval institutions of higher education, the universities. The famous European universities of Paris, Salerno, Bologna, Oxford, Cambridge, and Padua grew out of the Scholastics-led intellectual revival of the 12th and 13th centuries. The name university comes from the Latin word universitas, or associations, in reference to the associations that students and teachers organized to discuss academic issues. Medieval universities offered degrees in the liberal arts and in professional studies such as theology, law, and medicine. VIIIEDUCATION DURING THE RENAISSANCE The Renaissance, or rebirth of learning, began in Europe in the 14th century and reached its height in the 15th century. Scholars became more interested in the humanist features—that is, the secular or worldly rather than the religious aspects—of the Greek and Latin classics. Humanist educators found their models of literary style in the classics. The Renaissance was a particularly powerful force in Italy, most notably in art, literature, and architecture. In literature, the works of such Italian writers as Dante Aleghieri, Petrarch, and Giovanni Boccaccio became especially important. Humanist educators designed teaching methods to prepare well-rounded, liberally educated persons. Dutch humanist Desiderius Erasmus was particularly influential. Erasmus believed that understanding and conversing about the meaning of literature was more important than memorizing it, as had been required at many of the medieval religious schools. He advised teachers to study such fields as archaeology, astronomy, mythology, history, and Scripture. The invention of the printing press in the mid-15th century made books more widely available and increased literacy rates (see Printing). But school attendance did not increase greatly during the Renaissance. Elementary schools educated middle-class children while lower-class children received little, if any, formal schooling. Children of the nobility and upper classes attended humanist secondary schools. Educational opportunities for women improved slightly during the Renaissance, especially for the upper classes. Some girls from wealthy families attended schools of the royal court or received private lessons at home. The curriculum studied by young women was still based on the belief that only certain subjects, such as art, music, needlework, dancing, and poetry, were suited for females. For working-class girls, especially rural peasants, education was still limited to training in household duties such as cooking and sewing. IXEDUCATION DURING THE PROTESTANT REFORMATION The religious Reformation of the 16th century marked a decline in the authority of the Catholic Church and contributed to the emergence of the middle classes in Europe. Protestant religious reformers, such as John Calvin, Martin Luther, and Huldreich Zwingli, rejected the authority of the Catholic pope and created reformed Christian, or Protestant, churches. In their ardent determination to instruct followers to read the Bible in their native language, reformers extended literacy to the masses. They established vernacular primary schools that offered a basic curriculum of reading, writing, arithmetic, and religion for children in their own language. Vernacular schools in England, for example, used English to teach their pupils. As they argued with each other and with the Roman Catholics on religious matters, Protestant educators wrote catechisms—primary books that summarized their religious doctrine—in a question and answer format. While the vernacular schools educated both boys and girls at the primary level, upper-class boys attended preparatory and secondary schools that continued to emphasize Latin and Greek. The gymnasium in Germany, the Latin grammar school in England, and the lycee in France were preparatory schools that taught young men the classical languages of Latin and Greek required to enter universities. Martin Luther believed the state, family, and school, along with the church, were leaders of the Reformation. Since the family shaped children’s character, Luther encouraged parents to teach their children reading and religion. Each family should pray together, read the Bible, study the catechism, and practice a useful trade. Luther believed that government should assist schools in educating literate, productive, and religious citizens. One of Luther’s colleagues, German religious reformer Melanchthon, wrote the school code for the German region of Wurttemberg, which became a model for other regions of Germany and influenced education throughout Europe. According to this code, the government was responsible for supervising schools and licensing teachers. The Protestant reformers retained the dual-class school system that had developed in the Renaissance. Vernacular schools provided primary instruction for the lower classes, and the various classical humanist and Latin grammar schools prepared upper-class males for higher education. XEDUCATIONAL THEORY IN THE 17TH CENTURY Educators of the 17th century developed new ways of thinking about education. Czech education reformer Jan Komensky, known as Comenius, was particularly influential. A bishop of the Moravian Church, Comenius escaped religious persecution by taking refuge in Poland, Hungary, Sweden, and The Netherlands. He created a new educational philosophy called Pansophism, or universal knowledge, designed to bring about worldwide understanding and peace. Comenius advised teachers to use children’s senses rather than memorization in instruction. To make learning interesting for children, he wrote The Gate of Tongues Unlocked (1631), a book for teaching Latin in the student’s own language. He also wrote Orbis Sensualium Pictus (1658; The Visible World in Pictures, 1659) consisting of illustrations that labeled objects in both their Latin and vernacular names. It was one of the first illustrated books written especially for children. The work of English philosopher John Locke influenced education in Britain and North America. Locke examined how people acquire ideas in An Essay Concerning Human Understanding (1690). He asserted that at birth the human mind is a blank slate, or tabula rasa, and empty of ideas. We acquire knowledge, he argued, from the information about the objects in the world that our senses bring to us. We begin with simple ideas and then combine them into more complex ones. Locke believed that individuals acquire knowledge most easily when they first consider simple ideas and then gradually combine them into more complex ones. In Some Thoughts Concerning Education (1697), Locke recommended practical learning to prepare people to manage their social, economic, and political affairs efficiently. He believed that a sound education began in early childhood and insisted that the teaching of reading, writing, and arithmetic be gradual and cumulative. Locke’s curriculum included conversational learning of foreign languages, especially French, mathematics, history, physical education, and games. XIEDUCATION DURING THE ENLIGHTENMENT The Age of Enlightenment in the 18th century produced important changes in education and educational theory. During the Enlightenment, also called the Age of Reason, educators believed people could improve their lives and society by using their reason, their powers of critical thinking. The Enlightenment’s ideas had a significant impact on the American Revolution (1775-1783) and early educational policy in the United States. In particular, American philosopher and scientist Benjamin Franklin emphasized the value of utilitarian and scientific education in American schools. Thomas Jefferson, the third president of the United States, stressed the importance of civic education to the citizens of a democratic nation. The Enlightenment principles that considered education as an instrument of social reform and improvement remain fundamental characteristics of American education policy. XIIEDUCATION IN THE 19TH CENTURY The foundations of modern education were established in the 19th century. Swiss educator Johann Heinrich Pestalozzi, inspired by the work of French philosopher Jean Jacques Rousseau, developed an educational method based on the natural world and the senses. Pestalozzi established schools in Switzerland and Germany to educate children and train teachers. He affirmed that schools should resemble secure and loving homes. Like Locke and Rousseau, Pestalozzi believed that thought began with sensation and that teaching should use the senses. Holding that children should study the objects in their natural environment, Pestalozzi developed a so-called â€Å"object lesson† that involved exercises in learning form, number, and language. Pupils determined and traced an object’s form, counted objects, and named them. Students progressed from these lessons to exercises in drawing, writing, adding, subtracting, multiplying, dividing, and reading. Pestalozzi employed the following principles in teaching: (1) begin with the concrete object before introducing abstract concepts; (2) begin with the immediate environment before dealing with what is distant and remote; (3) begin with easy exercises before introducing complex ones; and (4) always proceed gradually, cumulatively, and slowly. American educator Henry Barnard, the first U. S. Commissioner of Education, introduced Pestalozzi’s ideas to the United States in the late 19th century. Barnard also worked for the establishment of free public high schools for students of all classes of American society. German philosopher Johann Herbart emphasized moral education and designed a highly structured teaching technique. Maintaining that education’s primary goal is moral development, Herbart claimed good character rested on knowledge while misconduct resulted from an inadequate education. Knowledge, he said, should create an â€Å"apperceptive mass†Ã¢â‚¬â€a network of ideas—in a person’s mind to which new ideas can be added. He wanted to include history, geography, and literature in the school curriculum as well as reading, writing, and arithmetic. Based on his work, Herbart’s followers designed a five-step teaching method: (1) prepare the pupils to be ready for the new lesson, (2) present the new lesson, (3) associate the new lesson with ideas studied earlier, (4) use examples to illustrate the lesson’s major points, and (5) test pupils to ensure they had learned the new lesson. AKindergarten German educator Friedrich Froebel created the earliest kindergarten, a form of preschool education that literally means â€Å"child’s garden† in German. Froebel, who had an unhappy childhood, urged teachers to think back to their own childhoods to find insights they could use in their teaching. Froebel studied at Pestalozzi’s institute in Yverdon, Switzerland, from 1808 to 1810. While agreeing with Pestalozzi’s emphasis on the natural world, a kindly school atmosphere, and the object lesson, Froebel felt that Pestalozzi’s method was not philosophical enough. Froebel believed that every child’s inner self contained a spiritual essence—a spark of divine energy—that enabled a child to learn independently. In 1837 Froebel opened a kindergarten in Blankenburg with a curriculum that featured songs, stories, games, gifts, and occupations. The songs and stories stimulated the imaginations of children and introduced them to folk heroes and cultural values. Games developed children’s social and physical skills. By playing with each other, children learned to participate in a group. Froebel’s gifts, including such objects as spheres, cubes, and cylinders, were designed to enable the child to understand the concept that the object represented. Occupations consisted of materials children could use in building activities. For example, clay, sand, cardboard, and sticks could be used to build castles, cities, and mountains. Immigrants from Germany brought the kindergarten concept to the United States, where it became part of the American school system. Margarethe Meyer Schurz opened a German-language kindergarten in Watertown, Wisconsin, in 1855. Elizabeth Peabody established an English-language kindergarten and a training school for kindergarten teachers in Boston, Massachusetts, in 1860. William Torrey Harris, superintendent of schools in St. Louis, Missouri, and later a U. S. commissioner of education, made the kindergarten part of the American public school system. BSocial Darwinism British sociologist Herbert Spencer strongly influenced education in the mid-19th century with social theories based on the theory of evolution developed by British naturalist Charles Darwin. Spencer revised Darwin’s biological theory into social Darwinism, a body of ideas that applied the theory of evolution to society, politics, the economy, and education. Spencer maintained that in modern industrialized societies, as in earlier simpler societies, the â€Å"fittest† individuals of each generation survived because they were intelligent and adaptable. Competition caused the brightest and strongest individuals to climb to the top of the society. Urging unlimited competition, Spencer wanted government to restrict its activities to the bare minimum. He opposed public schools, claiming that they would create a monopoly for mediocrity by catering to students of low ability. He wanted private schools to compete against each other in trying to attract the brightest students and most capable teachers. Spencer’s social Darwinism became very popular in the last half of the 19th century when industrialization was changing American and Western European societies. Spencer believed that people in industrialized society needed scientific rather than classical education. Emphasizing education in practical skills, he advocated a curriculum featuring lessons in five basic human activities: (1) those needed for self-preservation such as health, diet, and exercise; (2) those needed to perform one’s occupation so that a person can earn a living, including the basic skills of reading, writing, computation, and knowledge of the sciences; (3) those needed for parenting, to raise children properly; (4) those needed to participate in society and politics; and (5) those needed for leisure and recreation. Spencer’s ideas on education were eagerly accepted in the United States. In 1918 the Cardinal Principles of Secondary Education, a report issued by the National Education Association, used Spencer’s list of activities in its recommendations for American education. XIIINATIONAL SYSTEMS OF EDUCATION In the 19th century, governments in the United Kingdom, Germany, France, Italy, and other European countries organized national systems of public education. The United States, Canada, Argentina, Uruguay, and other countries in North and South America also established national education systems based largely on European models. In the United Kingdom The Church of England and other churches often operated primary schools in the United Kingdom, where students paid a small fee to study the Bible, catechism, reading, writing, and arithmetic. In 1833 the British Parliament passed a law that gave some government funds to these schools. In 1862 the United Kingdom established a school grant system, called payment by results, in which schools received funds based on their students’ performance on reading, writing, and arithmetic tests. The Education Act of 1870, called the Forster Act, authorized local government boards to establish public board schools. The United Kingdom then had two schools systems: board schools operated by the government and voluntary schools conducted by the churches and other private organizations. In 1878 the United Kingdom passed laws that limited child labor in factories and made it possible for more children to attend school. To make schooling available to working-class children, many schools with limited public and private funds used monitorial methods of instruction. Monitorial education, developed by British educators Joseph Lancaster and Andrew Bell, used student monitors to conduct lessons. It offered the fledgling public education system the advantage of allowing schools to hire fewer teachers to instruct the large number of new students. Schools featuring monitorial education used older boys, called monitors, who were more advanced in their studies, to teach younger children. Monitorial education concentrated on basic skills—reading, writing, and arithmetic—that were broken down into small parts or units. After a monitor had learned a unit—such as spelling words of two or three letters that began with the letter A—he would, under the master teacher’s supervision, teach this unit to a group of students. By the end of the 19th century, the monitorial system was abandoned in British schools because it provided a very limited education. BIn Russia Russian tsar Alexander II initiated education reforms leading to the Education Statute of 1864. This law created zemstvos, local government units, which operated primary schools. In addition to zemstvo schools, the Russian Orthodox Church conducted parish schools. While the number of children attending school slowly increased, most of Russia’s population remained illiterate. Peasants often refused to send their children to school so that they could work on the farms. More boys attended school than girls since many peasant parents considered female education unnecessary. Fearing that too much education would make people discontented with their lives, the tsar’s government provided only limited schooling to instill political loyalty and religious piety. CIn the United States Before the 19th century elementary and secondary education in the United States was organized on a local or regional level. Nearly all schools operated on private funds exclusively. However, beginning in the 1830s and 1840s, American educators such as Henry Barnard and Horace Mann argued for the creation of a school system operated by individual states that would provide an equal education for all American children. In 1852 Massachusetts passed the first laws calling for free public education, and by 1918 all U. S. states had passed compulsory school attendance laws. See Public Education in the United States. XIVEDUCATION IN THE TWENTIETH CENTURY At the beginning of the 20th century, the writings of Swedish feminist and educator Ellen Key influenced education around the world. Key’s book Barnets arhundrade (1900; The Century of the Child,1909) was translated into many languages and inspired so-called progressive educators in various countries. Progressive education was a system of teaching that emphasized the needs and potentials of the child, rather than the needs of society or the principles of religion. Among the influential progressive educators were Hermann Lietz and Georg Michael Kerschensteiner of Germany, Bertrand Russell of England, and Maria Montessori of Italy. AMontessori. Montessori’s methods of early childhood education have become internationally popular. Trained in medicine, Montessori worked with developmentally disabled children early in her career. The results of her work were so effective that she believed her teaching methods could be used to educate all children. In 1907 Montessori established a children’s school, the Casa dei Bambini (Children’s House), for poor children from the San Lorenzo district of Rome. Here she developed a specially prepared environment that featured materials and activities based on her observations of children. She found that children enjoy mastering specific skills, prefer work to play, and can sustain concentration. She also believed that children have a power to learn independently if provided a properly stimulating environment. Montessori’s curriculum emphasized three major classes of activity: (1) practical, (2) sensory, and (3) formal skills and studies. It introduced children to such practical activities as setting the table, serving a meal, washing dishes, tying and buttoning clothing, and practicing basic social manners. Repetitive exercises developed sensory and muscular coordination. Formal skills and subjects included reading, writing, and arithmetic. Montessori designed special teaching materials to develop these skills, including laces, buttons, weights, and materials identifiable by their sound or smell. Instructors provided the materials for the children and demonstrated the lessons but allowed each child to independently learn the particular skill or behavior. In 1913 Montessori lectured in the United States on her educational method. American educators established many Montessori schools after these lectures, but they declined in popularity in the 1930s as American educators stressed greater authority and control in the classroom. A revival of Montessori education in the United States began in the 1950s, coinciding with a growing emphasis on early childhood education. BDewey The work of American philosopher and educator John Dewey was especially influential in the U. S. and other countries in the 20th century.